QUESTION: DESCRIBE THE SOURCES OF ERROR IN LEVELING

            DESCRIBE THE SOURCES OF ERROR IN LEVELING

            Many sources of error exist in levelling and the most commonly met in practice are discussed. Firstly, one of the sources of error is errors in the equipment which is collimation error. This can be a serious source of error in levelling if the sight lengths from one instrument position are not equal, since the collimation error proportional to the difference in sight length. The line of collimation should be parallel to the line of sights. 

Hence, in all types of levelling, sights should kept equal, particularly back sights and fore sights. Before using any level it is advisable to carry out a two-peg to ensure that the collimation error is as small as possible. Other than that, compensator not working. The function of compensator is to deviate the horizontal ray of light at the optical center of the object lens through the center of the cross hairs. This ensure that line of sight viewed through the telescope is horizontal.  

If the reading changes to a different position each time the footscrew is moved or thr instrument tapped, the compensator is not working properly and the instrument should be returned to the manufacturer for repair. Parallax  also one of error in the equipment. Parallax must be eliminated before any readings are taken. Parallax is occur when the image of the distance point or object and focal plane are not fall exactly in the plane of the diaphragm. 

To eliminate parallax, the eyepiece is first adjusted until the cross hairs appear in sharp focus. Then, defects on the staff  which is the incorrect graduation staff cause the zero error. This does not effect height differences if the same staff is used for all the levelling but introduces errors if to staves used for the same series of levels. When using a multisection staff, it is important to unsure that it is properly extended by examining the graduations on either side of each joint. The stability of tripods should also be checked before any fieldwork commences .

 

                     Secondly, field errors also source of error. The example of field errors is staff not vertical, failure to hold the staff vertical will result in incorrect readings. The staff is held vertical with the aid of a circular bubble. At frequent intervals the circular bubble should checked against plumb line and adjusted if necessary. Another example of field errors is unstable ground. When the instrument is set up on soft ground and bituminous surfaces on hot days, an effect often overlooked is that the tripod legs may sink into the ground or rise slightly while readings are being taken.This alters the height collimation and therefore advisable to choose firm ground on which to set up the level. 

After that, handling the instrument and tripod as well as vertical displacement, the HPC may be altered for any set-up if the tripod is held or leant against. When levelling, avoid contact with the tripod and only use the level by light contact through the fingertips. Then, instrument not level is also the field errors. For automatic levels this source of error is unusual but, for tilting level in which the tilting screw has to be adjusted for each reading, this is common mistake. The best solution is to ensure the main bubble is centralised before and after reading.

 

                 Thirdly, source of error is the effects of curvature and refraction on levelling. The effect of atmospheric on the line of sight is to bend it towards the Earth’s surface causing staff readings to be too low. This is variable effect depending on atmospheric condition but for ordinary work refraction is assumed to have value 1/7 that of curvature bit is of opposite sign. The combined and refraction correction is c + r = 0.0673 D². If longer sight lengths must be used, it is worth remembering that the effects of curvature and refraction will cancel if the sight length are equal. But, curvature and refraction cannot always be ignored when calculating heights using theodolite methods.

 

                  Lastly, source of error is reading and booking error and also weather conditions. Source of reading error is the sighting the staff over too long a distance, when it becomes impossible to take accurate readings. It is , therefore, recommended that sighting distances should be limited to 50m but, where absolutely unavoidable, this may be increased to maximum of 100m. For weather conditions, when it windy will cause the level to vibrate and give rise to difficulties in holding the staff steady. In hot weather, the effect of refraction are serious and produce a shimmering effect near ground level. The reading cannot be read accurately.

Degrees/Minutes/Seconds (DMS) vs Decimal Degrees (DD)

We can find any location on Earth using latitude and longitude coordinates. And we measure those coordinates with decimal degrees or degrees/minutes/seconds. But what's the difference between Decimal Degrees (DD) and Degrees-Minutes-Seconds (DMS)?

Degrees/Minutes/Seconds (DMS) vs Decimal Degrees (DD)

For positioning, we can find any location on Earth using latitude and longitude coordinates.

And we measure those coordinates using decimal degrees or degrees/minutes/seconds.

While latitude lines range between -90 and +90 degrees, longitude coordinates are between -180 and +180 degrees.

Do you notice how we use degrees for latitude and longitude coordinates? Let’s start with some key examples how come we use angular units.

A Review on Geographic Coordinate Systems

In a geographic coordinate system (GCS), we can reference any point on Earth by its longitude and latitude coordinates. Because a GCS uses a sphere to define locations on the Earth, we use angles measured in degrees from the earth’s center to any point on the surface.

The coordinates (0°N, 0°E) is where the equator and prime meridian cross. The funny thing is that if you look at this location on a map, it’s all ocean. But because GIS professionals sometimes mistakenly define their project when adding XY coordinates, (0°N, 0°E) had turned into a fictional location called “null island”.

When we move northward along the prime meridian, the longitude value stays fixed at 0°. But the latitude angle and coordinate increases because we move northward.

If we move northwards at an angle of 51.5°, this positions you on the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, England as pictured below. Actually, this is why the 0° line of longitude is the reference starting point. From the Greenwich Meridian, we can find positions east and west.

Because the prime meridian is the 0° starting point for longitude coordinates, everything is referenced from here.

For example, we can change the angle 80.4° west. This moves us 80.4°W away from the prime meridian. And just by chance, Pittsburgh is located on this line of longitude at about (40.4°N, 80.4°W)

To recap:

The equator is 0° latitude where we measure north and south. This means that everything north of the equator has positive latitude values. Whereas, everything south of the equator has negative latitude values.

Alternatively, the Greenwich Meridian (or prime meridian) is a zero line of longitude from which we measure east and west.

Decimal Degrees vs Degrees/Minutes/Seconds

One way to write spherical coordinates (latitudes and longitudes) is using degrees-minutes-seconds (DMS). Minutes and seconds range from 0 to 60. For example, the geographic coordinate expressed in degrees-minutes-seconds for New York City is:

LATITUDE: 40 degrees, 42 minutes, 51 seconds N
LONGITUDE: 74 degrees, 0 minutes, 21 seconds W

But you can also express geographic coordinates in decimal degrees. It’s just another way to represent that same location in a different format. For example, here is New York City in decimal degrees:

LATITUDE: 40.714
LONGITUDE: -74.006

Although you can easily convert coordinates by hand, the FCC has a DMS-Decimal converter tool that can convert between decimal degrees and degrees/minutes/seconds.

Try For Yourself

When you put two coordinates together as a pair (X, Y), you can locate anything on Earth with a geographic coordinate system.

Anything!

You can express coordinates in primarily two different ways. For example, you can use decimal degrees or degrees-minutes-seconds. But there are even new growing ways to of addressing the world such as What3Words.

After your locations are in a GCS, geographers often project their locations in a Projected Coordinate System (PCS). PCS like the State Plane Coordinate System (SPCS) or Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) are always based on a GCS that is based on a sphere.